St. Paul's

St. Paul’s cathedral is one of the most prominent features of the London skyline and one of the most visited sites in the entire city. The present building, enormous and dominating, dates from the 17^th century, and is generally said to be the fifth St. Paul’s Cathedral to stand on that spot (Crotchet 16). Realistically, however, the number is higher if every major medieval reconstruction is counted as a new cathedral. Today St. Paul’s still serves as a functioning cathedral for the Anglican Church where daily services are held, which the public is invited to attend. Evensong in the cathedral is truly remarkable as the music from the organ fills the entire dome above the Quire.

Historians speculate that there may have been a church on this site as early as the fourth century, but the first recorded account dates from 604 when St. Augustine created the diocese of London and installed the first bishop. Even at this time it was officially titled St. Paul’s, one of the few churches before the 18^th century to take on an apostles’ name. This church was eventually destroyed by fire in 1087. Efforts were quickly made to rebuild the structure that was the center of English religion but another fire broke out in 1135, this time on the London Bridge, and swept through the city, again damaging the cathedral before it was completed. Building continued for an additional two hundred years until it was again completed (Ewin 3). Over the course of the next four hundred years the cathedral continued to cycle through stages of disarray and rebuilding. In 1665 the plague speared across the city forcing thousands to flee and work on the cathedral ceased (Crotchet 16).

Sir Christopher Wren, today heralded chief architect of the new St. Paul’s Cathedral, returned to London from France early in the year 1666 anxious to once again rebuild St. Paul’s, with plans to add new features to it as well. He drew up his proposals for the Royal Commission and presented them early in ‘66. His plans horrified the conservative colleagues on the Commission. The feature to which they were most opposed was the imposing dome that he proposed to erect over the spot where the great tower stood, essentially making it the first of its kind in England (Ewin 8). Finally, after much deliberation and convincing, the Commission went to the cathedral to consider these proposals on August 27, 1666. After even further debate it was agreed that an estimate could be prepared and movement towards rebuilding would begin. Only five days later, on September 2, 1666 the Great Fire of London put an end to all of these plans. On the second day of the fire the roof of the cathedral, which had before appeared to be relatively safe, caught fire (Burman 34). A woman who watched the cathedral burn recorded the event saying, “the stones of St. Paul’s flew like grenados, the melting lead running down the streets in a stream, and the very pavements glowing with fiery redness” (qtd. in Crotchet 16). The old cathedral was, from that moment effectively lost.

At this point there seemed to be two options concerning the cathedral’s rebuilding. First, to rebuild the old cathedral, including Wren’s dome, or second to propose a completely new cathedral. Both of these tasks were extremely daunting considering the fact that nearly the entire city of London needed rebuilding after the fire. Eventually, in order to compromise between the two, Wren produced another design which included both the traditional long cruciform plan and a dome, lantern and spire. Approved by the King, work on the new St. Paul’s cathedral began in June 1675, after the demolishing and clearing of old ruins had taken place (Ewin 12-13). Work on the cathedral was laborious as the entire city of London was being rebuilt, but, it was to become a greater and even more domineering than the spectacle that the old cathedral had been. Finally, in October of 1708 the last stone was laid and Sir Christopher’s son led a simple ceremony to open the new St. Paul’s Cathedral (Ewin 16). After centuries of destruction and reconstruction, the new St. Paul’s Cathedral, which still stands in central London today, was completed.

Works Cited

Burman, Peter. St. Paul’s Cathedral. London: Bell and Hyman, 1987.

Crotchet, Dotted. "St. Paul's Cathedral." The Musical Times 48.767 (1907): 9-16.

Ewin, T. Floyd. The Splendour of St. Paul’s. Norwich: Jarrold Colour Publications.

Shakespeare's Globe

Shakespeare’s original Globe Theatre was built in 1559 to become the home of the Chamberlain-King’s company and the only theatre where they publicly presented in London. Shakespeare himself belonged to this company and upon the Globe’s stage his major tragedies enjoyed their first performance. Located on what was once the marshy and dirty south bank of the Thames River, the Globe drew its audience from the north bank of the Thames (Beckerman ix). Overall, the Globe itself has become a symbol for the entire art form of drama. Its construction and success heralded in a time in which the success of the theatre has been rarely matched. The plays performed at the Globe were so successful that virtually all drama which was to come in England radiates from those years.

Construction of the Globe commenced on February 26, 1599 under the supervision of Peter Streete. It is now estimated that the Globe took approximately twenty eight to thirty weeks to complete and it is projected that the opening date was in August or September or 1599. It was officially in use until the year 1613 when it was destroyed by fire on June 29^th. It is recorded that the fire was set by a cannon accident during a production of Henry VIII (Brockett 168-169). Despite its short-lived career of only fourteen years, the Globe became a symbol for drama as a whole, propelling its influence into England’s future and making Shakespeare’s name famous forever.

At the instigation of the American actor, Sam Wanamaker, a new Globe Theatre was built in the early 90s. Attempting to make it as much like the original as possible, the new theatre was built according to a design based on the historical research of John Orrell (Hornby 633). The Globe was excavated before the building began, but its true dimensions remain unknown. Orrell argues that the Globe was a twenty sided circular building with an exterior diameter of approximately ninety nine feet and a yard diameter of seventy four feet. He estimates that the galleries were twelve and a half feet deep, and that the stage was forty three feet wide and twenty five feet deep. The new theatre is constructed as closely as possible to what is believed to be the original dimensions. It is also built on Bankside, approximately two hundred and twenty five yards from the original site. The new theatre also became the first thatched roof building permitted in London since the Great Fire of 1666 (Brockett 168).

Just as in the original Globe, the reconstructed theatre houses a stage that juts out into a large yard surrounded by three tiers of steep stadium seating. The only covered parts of the theatre are the stage and the seated areas. The theatre is allowed to seat 1600 people according to fire code though far more could fit to stand in the yard. Many have debated the actual originality of the rebuilt Globe. Obviously some modernizations were added, including additional lighting so that shows can be performed at night and sprinklers on the roof to protect against fire and a modern lobby, but holistically it is believed to be almost identical to the original. In his review of the rebuilt Globe, Richard Hornby suggests, that “the restored Globe in London may be too big. It may be historically inaccurate, or it may be too accurate for critics who like Shakespeare modernized. But, it is, nonetheless, the most exciting new kind of theatrical space to be constructed in recent years. It not only teaches us about Shakespeare in every production, it teaches us about theatre generally” (Hornby 633). Overall, despite its accuracy or inaccuracy, the Globe provides modern London citizens, as well as visitors from all over the world to experience a taste of Shakespeare’s world as close to historical correctness as possible.

Works Cited

Beckerman, Bernard. Shakespeare and the Globe. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1962.

Brockett, Oscar G. History of the Theatre. 7^th ed. Massachusetts: A Simon and Schuster Company, 1995.

Hornby, Richard. "Shakespeare's Globe." The Hudson Review 52.4, The British Issue (2000): 633-40.

Greenwich

Filled with clocks, telescopes, sextants and other instruments of old methods of navigation, the Greenwich Royal Observatory has been the headquarters of astrology, time and navigation for centuries. Situated directly over the Prime Meridian, which is artificially extended in laser form across the Thames River at night, the Observatory became the center of at-sea navigation in the 17^th and 18^th centuries for England and for much of the world. Here conferences have been held for hundreds of years in which decisions about daylight-savings, star charts and time keeping, have been made. Realistically, the conclusions that scientists have come to in Greenwich affect our day to day lives immensely and anytime there seems to be a time restraint on anything, Greenwich holds much of the responsibility.

The Royal Observatory was established by King Charles II in 1675 for the specific purpose of “rectifying the tables of the motions of the heavens, and the places of the fixed stars, so as to find out the so-much-desired longitude of places for the perfecting art of navigation” (Jones 349). Prior to the establishment of an intensive research and discovery program at Greenwich, measurements of longitude did not exist and sailors and travelers were left to find their way using only latitudinal coordinates. Also at this time, the most accurate star catalogue available included only one thousand stars, of which only seven hundred and seventy seven had been properly and extensively observed. The best tables to giving the position of the moon were liable to errors as great as twenty degrees (Jones 349-350). All of this would rapidly change with the patronage of King Charles II and the increased focus on discovering effective means of navigation and coordination headed at the Greenwich Royal Observatory.

On March 4, 1675, John Flamsteed was appointed astronomical observer at the newly-erected Observatory at Greenwich. At this time, navigation was based on lunar tables and stellar charts which were known to be subject to enormous errors and inefficiency (Chescinsky 309). Flamsteed’s job was to find better means of navigation to prevent so many losses at sea. His position carried a salary of one hundred pounds per year and a small home but the government provided no instrumentation. Though the position was seemingly poor, great discoveries would come from it. Stars would be charted, old methods of navigation abandoned and time telling anchored.

Flamsteed owed his appointment to the patrons of the Observatory: Sir Jonas Moore, St. Piere, Sir Christopher Wren, who was also the chief architect and built the impressive Octagon Room, and King Charles II. From these men Flamsteed was endowed with three clocks, a quadrant and two telescopes, all of which are still visible in the Observatory which has been converted into a museum (Chescinsky 309). From this time forward many important decisions have been made concerning time and navigation. For example, the concept of daylight savings time was conceived by Englishman William Willett in 1905 during one of his pre-breakfast horse rides. He observed, to his dismay, that because of the time, many Londoners slept through what he considered to be the best part of a summer day. Eventually, after tirelessly lobbying his entire life for the passage of Daylight Savings Time, Winston Churchill, in coordination with members of the Royal Observatory, made Willett’s dream a law (Rooney).

All of these great accomplishments are truly only part of what Greenwich has to offer. Also making their home in Greenwich are Sir Christopher Wren’s domed masterpiece, the Old Royal Naval College, the Queen’s House overlooking the Thames and the Greenwich foot tunnel which passes underneath the Thames. An often overlooked headquarters of scientific discovery in navigation, astrology and time keeping, Greenwich has a deep and complex history that is definitely worth a visit.

Works Cited

Cescinsky, Herbert. "Flamsteed's Clocks from Greenwich Observatory." The Burlington Magazine for Connoisseurs 51.297 (1927): 309-11.

Jones, Harold Spencer. "The Royal Greenwich Observatory." Proceedings of the Royal Society of London.Series B, Biological Sciences 136.884 (1949): 349-77.

Rooney, David. Royal Observatory Commemorates William Willett. Petts Wood & District Residents' Association. Retrieved on 2008-06-04.

Hampton Court

Hampton Court Palace was England’s most significant address during the Tudor age. The medieval manor, situated just southwest of London on the banks of the Thames served as the center of government and monarchy during the reign of the Tudors, particularly Henry VIII. From this headquarters, Henry challenged the authority of the Roman Catholic Church, divorced and beheaded his wives, held great feasts and parties and eventually became the head of both the government and the newly formed Church of England. It is one of the most significant sites for British legal and religious history in all of London.

The house and land was initially purchased by the showy Thomas Wolsey and transformed into a medieval manor. Wolsey, the son of an Ipswich butler, became immensely rich and powerful, deemed a Cardinal, the Archbishop of York and eventually Lord Chancellor. He became the chief minister to King Henry VIII which landed him in the center of the conflict when the King’s desire for a divorce began (Hibbert 108). As an administrator Wolsey was said to be arrogant but wholly unable to transfer his drive and innate ability into anything truly productive. As a financial minister his work was weak and his best work was done in the field of justice (Willson 228). With this apparent strength and considering his position among the King’s trusted advisors Wolsey became trapped in the center of the infamous Henry VIII conflict.

Nonetheless, before his downfall, Wolsey was rich and powerful enough to purchase Hampton Court and began to build it into a great palace. Wolsey’s Hampton Court was much different than the refurbished Tudor court that exists today. Wolsey likely intended the court as an ideal Renaissance cardinal’s palace in the style of Italian architects with symmetrical planning and classical detailing, both of which are still evident despite the Tudor remodel. Jonathan Foyle has suggested that it is likely that Wolsey had been inspired by Paolo Cortese’s De Cardinalautu, a manual for cardinals that included advice on palatial architecture, published in 1510 (Foyle 135). There is obvious Italian influence throughout the structure and layout of the building.

Disgracing Wolsey when he was unable to secure a legal divorce for him from Catherine of Aragon, Henry VIII eventually assumed occupancy of Hampton Court in about the year 1525. When the King moved into the palace, an extensive remodeling process which would last ten years was begun (Foyle 128). During this time period, the extensive kitchens were installed, enabling the preparation of large amounts of meat and food for visiting guests who would then dine in the Great Hall, also erected during the remodel. Henry VIII no doubt looked upon Hampton Court as a place of entertainment where he would be able to host hundreds, if not thousands of guests and show off his wealth and importance. Here Henry also had two of his wives arrested and taken to the Tower of London where they were to be beheaded. Their ghosts are said to still haunt the great corridors and staircases.

Later, during the reign of William and Mary, half of the Tudor palace was replaced in a project that lasted from 1689-1694. New wings surrounding the Fountain Court were added, all designed by the famous architect, Sir Christopher Wren. During this renovation new state apartments were also constructed and the grounds were also transformed into symmetrical and French style gardens. Despite this extensive remodel, during the time of William and Mary, monarchs began to favor other London homes over Hampton Court and in 1760 it ceased to be a royal residence (Roberts 330-331). Yet, during the time that it was inhabited by members of the royal family, Hampton Court served as the central hub for many decisions which would forever change the scope of English religion and monarchical rule.

Works Cited

Foyle, Jonathan. "A Reconstruction of Thomas Wolsey's Great Hall at Hampton Court Palace." Architectural History 45 (2002): 128-58.

Hibbert, Christopher. The Story of England. London: Phaidon Press Limited, 2006.

Roberts, Clayton and David Roberts. A History of England: Prehistory to 1714. 3^rd ed. New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1998.

Willson, David Harris. A History of England. 2^nd ed. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1972.

The Imperial War Museum: Children’s War Exhibit

The Imperial War Museum houses an eclectic collection of artifacts and information about Great Britain’s involvement in WWI and WWII. Visitors can explore a wide array of collections from a model submarine from WWI times to an artificial reenactment of a bomb being dropped during The Blitz in London. The museum’s most visited exhibit is the Holocaust exhibition which explores Britain’s battle against Nazi power, Hitler’s rise to power and the genocide of millions of Jewish people from 1937-45. One exhibit in particular caught my attention while I was at the museum: The Children’s War Exhibit. The exhibit explored WWII through the eyes of children in London who were involved in the evacuation program, Pied Piper, and, in order to escape the dangers of the Blitz, were moved out of central London and into country towns where it was believed they would be much safer. First sight of the exhibit immediately invited thoughts of C.S. Lewis’ Pevensie children in The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe, but exploration of the exhibit helped me realize the extent to which the Blitz affected London as a community and the true danger that families who resided here faced, making their evacuation inevitable.

As the bombing in London increased and the danger levels skyrocketed in the first years of British involvement in WWII, evacuations of civilians were implemented to save the population of urban and military areas from the deadly and constant German military bombing. It is widely known that thousands of children were removed from central London during this time, but many other civilians were also evacuated. There was a steady evacuation flow of evacuees during 1939, but the official evacuations, called for by the Pied Piper Act, began on September 1, 1939, two days before the official declaration of war. Evacuees were gathered in groups and placed on the first available train, regardless of its destination. By the end of the war, almost 3.75 million people had been moved, with over a third of Britain’s population overall experiencing some effects of the evacuation (Cox 17-18).

In the first three days of evacuation alone some 1,500,000 people were moved: 827,000 school-aged children, 524,000 mothers and young children under 5, 13,000 pregnant woman, 7,000 disabled persons and over 100,000 teachers and other helpers. Families were separated and children were literally sent wherever the next train was headed. These helpers volunteered to leave their homes in London and travel to the countryside where they would become caretakers for children who had been separated from their parents (“The Children’s War”). The initial evacuation was enormous, but the fleeing wasn’t over yet.

A second evacuation effort was started after the fall of France in 1940. During a weeks time in June around 100,000 were evacuated or re-evacuated. They were removed from coastal towns which faced German controlled areas. By the end of July over 200,000 children had been moved. Some towns in Kent and East Anglia had evacuated over 40% of their populations (“The Children’s War”). Along with this internal movement, refugees were also constantly arriving from continental Europe.

After years of resistance, London eventually proved resilient to bombing in major urban areas despite the constant bombardment and extreme destruction. In September 1944 the evacuation process was officially halted and reversed for most areas except for London and the East Coast. Return to London was not approved until June 1945. The cultural impacts of the evacuations had been enormous as families were separated and children left on their own with caretakers (Engel 85-89). Upon return to cities thousands of people found their homes in ruins soliciting a major rebuilding of London and many other places throughout the United Kingdom. WWII had affected Great Britain at the very core of its population; the Blitz forced every citizen to share some sort of first hand involvement in the war. Unlike citizens in America who were affected only through the eyes of their friends and family who were serving in the military, nearly the whole of the British population experienced the effects of the war personally and individually.

Works Cited

Cox, Noel. "The Continuity of Government in the Face of Enemy Attack - The British Experience, Part 1". Forts and Works 6 (1998): 17-19.

Engel, Mary. "Children and War." Peabody Journal of Education 61.3, The Legacy of Nicholas Hobbs: Research on Education and Human Development in the Public Interest: Part 2 (1984): 71-90.

“The Children’s War: The Second World War Through the Eyes of Children in Britain.” Imperial War Museum: London. 5 Jun 2008.

Westminster Abbey

The Collegiate Church of St. Peter at Westminster, commonly known as Westminster Abbey, is a central focal point in downtown London, both in terms of history and architecture. Located just to the west of the Palace of Westminster (today the Houses of Parliament) the Abbey is the traditional place of the coronation and burial of English monarchs and other revered English citizens. A shrine was first established on this site in 616 (Crotchet 221). Since that time the Abbey has served as one of the many hubs of English religion and is a near perfect representation of the deep ties between state and religion found in the United Kingdom historically and today.

Though a religious shrine has stood on this ground from the year 616 onward, Westminster Abbey as it is known today was not officially founded or initially erected until the year 1045 when the King Edward, nicknamed Edward the Confessor, planted a community of Benedictine monks here. Edward the Confessor destroyed the then existing buildings on the site and began to build the Abbey itself on the desolate land which was then known as Thorney Island. Thorney Island was a dry and “insulated peninsula of dry sand and gravel, girt on one side by the Thames and on the other side by the mashes formed by the little stream Eye” which has since been completely incorporated into the scope of downtown London (Crotchet 221). The Norman building, erected by the pious Edward, was one of the first “cruciform churches” built in England and it covered nearly the whole ground which is now occupied by the Abbey (Crotchet 221). Edward, the chief patron of the building of the Abbey was a pious man, but wholly weak and incapable as a ruler. He had been educated by Norman Monks and “at heart, remained a monk all his life” (Willson 49). Although he did not entirely forfeit or neglect the duties of kingship, he disliked the affairs of state and preferred a life of contemplation. Thus, the main focus of his rule became the building of Westminster Abbey. The Abbey was officially consecrated and dedicated on December 28, 1065 and Edward died just weeks later on January 5, 1066, and was buried in the Abbey. Leaving a great legacy of piety and faithful devotion to religion, Edward was canonized in 1161 and is considered a saint by the Roman Catholic Church (Willson 49-50).

Although Edward the Confessor is wholly responsible for the initial building of the Abbey, Westminster as it is known today owes a great deal of its inception to the art-loving and eccentric King Henry III. Henry “showered gifts upon the Abbey—silver vessels for chrism; banners, baudekins and other hangings representing images from the Bible” (Crotchet 222). In 1241 he began to erect a new golden shrine for Edward the Confessor, also ordaining by charter that he should be buried at the side of the saint. The rebuilding and revamping of the Abbey began on July 6, 1245. The eastern part of the Abbey (except for the later-built Henry VII’s chapel) and the first four bays of the western portion were built between 1245 and 1270. The Chapter House and most of the cloisters were also erected during this short twenty five years (Crotchet 222-223). But, the Abbey was still unfinished, despite its growing size and iconography in the country of England.

King Henry VII, who came to the throne in 1485, ushering in the infamous reign of the Tudor Dynasty, would be the final great contributor to the general layout and architecture of the Abbey. Henry VIII laid the foundation stone of his chapel on January 24, 1500 (Hibbert 105-106). Amidst the architectural splendor of the Abbey, the chapel and its ceiling particularly stand out. Henry lavished immense sums of money on the building of his chapel which has become “a superb example of the late Perpendicular or Tudor Gothic Style” (Hibbert 107). Following the erection of this chapel, the Abbey’s layout has remained relatively constant with the addition of more graves of English rulers and the consecration of Poet’s Corner as the resting place of England’s greatest authors and artists. As a whole, nearly 1300 graves lie beneath the stone floor of the Abbey buried directly under the feet of the millions of visitors in the absence of a crypt.

Westminster Abbey continues today to serve as the place of royal coronations and burials. It stands just across from the Houses of Parliament serving as a reminder of the inseparable connection between the Church of England and the government of the United Kingdom. The Abbey has stood as a symbol of religion in the heart of London for nearly 1400 years and continues to link and define the great connection of English monarchs to English religion.

Works Cited

Crotchet, Dotted. "Westminster Abbey." The Musical Times 48.770 (1907): 221-7.

Hibbert, Christopher. The Story of England. London: Phaidon Press Limited, 2006.

Willson, David Harris. A History of England. 2^nd ed. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1972.

The British Museum: Roman Britain

From the earliest of Caesar’s invasions to the break-up of the Western Empire, Rome’s occupation or involvement with the island of Britain spans a period of nearly five centuries. Overshadowing the years from AD 43 to AD 410, the Romans occupied or greatly influenced the British Isles. Referring to their province as Britannia, they introduced new methods of agriculture, industrialization, industry and architecture leaving a legacy that is still visible in some parts of Great Britain today. Although the island nation had been connected culturally and economically to continental Europe prior to this invasion, Roman occupation also secured a connection to continental Europe that would exist from that time forward.

Determined to take the islands of Britain and expand their ever growing empire, the Romans attacked the islands for the first time in 55 BC, led by Julius Caesar. Their goal was to gather information about the little known island nation and to punish their enemy, the Belgae who were residing along the southern coast. This initial invasion was wholly unsuccessful however, and, after only a few skirmishes, Caesar decided to withdraw his troops. Returning to Rome, Caesar relayed the knowledge that he had gained recalling previous ideas of Britain as a primitive island of brutal tribesman. It was not until nearly one hundred years later, however, that a second attempt would be made to incorporate it into the Empire (Hibbert 20).

The first successful Roman invasion was led by Aulus Plautius in 43 AD. The complete number of Roman legions sent is not recorded and only one legion is said to have actually attacked. The main reason for invading the island was actually to defend Roman interests in the nearby country of Gaul (now known as France), providing for an easier and more accessible route between a Roman headquarters and the province (Ireland 29). There was much resistance to the Roman invaders, but, the Britons could not withstand the might of Rome and they were overtaken.

Roman legions, fanning out from the southeastern corner where they initially attacked, subdued the lowland plains of Britain, easily, within five years. They began to lay down great military roads which radiated outward from London, which was established as a center. There were few revolts from the peoples of the northern lands, notably the Celt revolt of 60 AD led by Queen Boudicca, but they were all harshly repressed (Willson 10). All of the resistant tribes were ultimately pushed back into the bordering lands of Wales and Scotland while Rome assumed complete control of the English countryside and major cities. Rome had conquered yet another province by wielding their powerful sword and now controlled countries spanning from the northernmost to the southernmost provinces of Europe itself.

The towns and villages captured in the heart of England were gradually transformed into culturally and visibly Roman villages. Most towns were arranged in a Romanesque, grid-like pattern which can still be recognized in many cities. The Romans also built up towns from scratch and erected temples, basilicas, barracks, public offices, amphitheatres, baths and workshops. Not only did Roman architecture assume control over England, Roman religion and culture accompanied the invasion. Togas seem to have been worn, many ornate mosaic patterned floors were assembled and Latin became the official language of the country, though many people also spoke Celtic (Hibbert 23-24). To further instill the political control and power of central Rome mini statuettes of emperors and other important leaders were also produced and sent to the British Isles where they were displayed. These statuettes make up a majority of what has been found in the ruins of Roman towns.

Overall, Britain was part of the Roman Empire for almost 400 years, but for a number of reasons the permanent effects of the Roman occupation are relatively small. First and foremost, resistance from the north, which solicited the building of Hadrian’s Wall, resisted Roman culture during the entire scope of the invasion. The native population was able to remain predominantly Celtic. The impact of Rome was, no doubt, far greater in the south. As historian David Willson describes, “Roman civilization essentially became urban civilization” while most of the countryside was also able to retain Celtic culture (Willson 12). Yet, despite this overall lack of influence which would propel into the future, Roman occupation would change forever the structure and importance of British commerce and industry. Having been little known or explored by mainland Europe before the Roman invasion, Roman occupation would put Britain on the map as a place of resource and importance in commerce and trade.

Works Cited

Hibbert, Christopher. The Story of England. London: Phaidon Press Limited, 2006.

Ireland, S. Roman Britain. 2^nd ed. London: Routledge Press, 1986.

Willson, David Harris. A History of England. 2^nd ed. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1972.

Stonehenge

Realistically, it is impossible for us to know for what purpose Stonehenge was erected. Theories of all different shapes and sizes have circulated about this site since it was discovered. Most of the theories surrounding these sites, which are very ancient, are consequently inferred from very minimal evidence. But, despite the uncertainty and confusion which still surrounds the purpose and uses of Stonehenge through the ages, some theories and conjectures have been written down in attempt to understand just what Stonehenge was, where it came from and why it was needed in the civilization it was obviously an important part of.

Coupled with the stone circles at Avebury, Stonehenge is one of the most mysterious ancient sites in the world. Unlike the ancient civilizations of Mesopotamia or Egypt, Stonehenge leaves behind no textual evidence for explanation. Until recent years both of these ancient sites (Stonehenge and Avebury) were treated with apathy, farmers thoughtlessly clearing the stones in order to grow crops. Only in very recent years has there been any attempt made to uncover the secrets of their history. Of course, fanciful myths have always circulated with tales of the stone monuments; stories of human sacrifices and strange ceremonies being the most popular (Hibbert 12). Though the reasons why the stones are arranged as such remain a mystery, a few things seem to be becoming clearer to archaeologists who study this ancient site. For example, the Central Stone at Stonehenge, along with the Heel Stone—directly tied to the angle of the rising sun on summer mornings—suggests a ceremony connected to sun worship. The true age of the monument is also becoming clearer. It is believed that the Stonehenge monoliths were arranged in at least five stages covering the span of five centuries from 2200 to 1300 BC. (Hibbert13). Yet, although we are beginning to see the true extent of the massive span of time during which these monuments have stood, little is known about the people who placed them there or their purposes in doing so.

Despite this uncertainty, however, there has been no lack of conjecture. The following have all been seriously considered as possibilities for the activity or worship which once occurred at Stonehenge: “astronomical observatory, calendar for the seasons, temple for some form of worship, headquarters of a priesthood, sepulchre for chieftains, sepulchral use connected with barrows, memorial hall or monument of victory, palace for a great king, hall for ceremonial meetings of chiefs, court of justice, theatre for contests or ordeals or simply to rival or supersede its predecessor, Avebury” (Stone 69). Of all of these conjectures there are two which have received the most support from archaeologists. The first is that Stonehenge was designed for some purpose connected with the observation or possible worship of the sun and incidentally was used as a calendar of the seasons. The second most favored is that Stonehenge was designed for some sepulchral purpose connected with the adjacent barrows (Stone 70). However, any clue to the true usage remains hidden from archaeologists view.

The earliest known written record of the legendary Stonehenge occurs in Geoffrey of Monmouth’s History of the Kings of Britain, written in the year 1136. Although a story is told of Stonehenge being erected in order to commemorate a great victory, most historians have also dismissed this theory, believing that the stones were dragged to this spot from the mountains in Wales at a much earlier time (Grinsell 5). The very newest archaeological evidence suggests that Stonehenge has served as a burial ground since its earliest beginnings but gives little detail beyond this raw fact. And so, conclusively, after listing a catalogue of theories and possibilities, the true purpose remains unknown. Conjectures are widespread and understanding is limited. From what we do know about the stones at Stonehenge however, it is easy to conclude that since they were brought from so far away and built to withstand 2000 years’ time, whatever purpose the monument was used for was of extreme importance to the civilization which constructed them.

Works Cited

Grinsell, L. V. "The Legendary History and Folklore of Stonehenge." Folklore 87.1 (1976): 5-20.

Hibbert, Christopher. The Story of England. London: Phaidon Press Limited, 2006.

Stone, E. Herbert. "40. the Purpose of Stonehenge." Man 25 (1995): 69-72.

Bath

Bath is a city of rich history and heritage with well-preserved remains of several eras of English history still visible to the public. First and foremost it is well known for its Roman remains. Hadrian’s Wall in the north of England and the Roman baths in this city (hence the name) are the most outstanding Roman remains in the country. It is one of the few towns of Roman occupation which still bears any visible evidence of Roman Britain times. Although the bath houses have been reconstructed multiple times, it still has the feel of a Roman British town exemplifying the influence of Rome on southern English towns and giving some idea of the henceforward connection that Britain would have with the continent of Europe as a whole after the Roman occupation.

The city of Bath originated and developed around its hot spring waters. It is a city with a variety of Roman, medieval and Georgian architecture, with many great buildings and churches formed out of the famous golden colored Bath stone. The city was originally founded, in the valley of the River Avon around the naturally occurring hot springs where Romans build baths and a temple during the time of their occupation. The Romans originally named the city Aquae Sulis in honor of the Celtic goddess Sulis, whom the Romans identified with the goddess Minerva. The Romans constructed a temple in 60-70 AD and the bathing complex which surrounds it was gradually built up over the next 300 years. In order to build these baths and temples, engineers drove oak piles into the mud to provide a stable foundation and surrounded the spring with an irregular stone chamber lined with lead (Morgan 26). Later, in the 2^nd century, the spring was enclosed with a wooden building which came to house the calidarium (hot bath), tepidarim (warm bath) and frigidarium (cold bath). Defensive walls were also built up around the city. After the Roman downfall and withdrawal in the 5^th century the baths fell into disrepair and were eventually lost due to silting up. They gradually became completely covered in alluvial mud and hidden from sight for over a thousand years to be rediscovered only towards the end of the 19^th century (Cunliffe 4).

While the baths themselves decayed, the town itself continued to develop. Around 760 King Offa founded an Abbey dedicated to St. Peter in which Edgar was crowned king in 973. This alone is sufficient proof of the enormous importance of Bath in times even after Roman occupation. In the early 1100s new baths were built around the three springs. With the improvement of both the Abbey and the rebuilding of the baths, Bath was eventually granted city status in 1590 (Cunliffe 6). Several areas of the city continued to undergo development and improvement during the Stuart period and this only increased during Georgian times in response to the number of visitors who traveled to the spa and resort town (Borsay 22). While today the baths may not look very appealing, in their time they ultimately made Bath one of the most popular holiday towns of its day.

During Georgian times, architects John Wood the Elder and John Wood the Younger laid out new quarters in streets and squares and participated in the building of several massive construction projects such as The Circus, The Royal Crescent and later Pulteney Bridge. During WWII Bath suffered three major air raids in retaliation for RAF raids on the Germans. Over 400 people were killed and more than 19,000 buildings were damaged or destroyed. Houses in the Royal Crecent, Circus and Paragon were burnt out (Borsay 73). All have since been reconstructed and regeneration work is continuing. Just like so many other monuments or towns which have been reconstructed in Great Britain to give a feel of the past, Bath literally gives visitors a peek into some of the greatest and most shaping events of British history—such as the Roman occupation.

Works Cited

Borsay, Peter. The Image of Georgian Bath, 1700-2000: Towns, Heritage, and History. Oxford University Press, 2000.

Cunliffe, Barry. "The Roman Baths at Bath: The Excavations 1969-75." Britannia 7 (1976): 1- 32.

Morgan, Kenneth O. The Oxford Illustrated History of Britain. London: Oxford University Press, 2000.

Canterbury Cathedral

Although Canterbury Cathedral itself is a stunning architectural feat and a beautiful building, it is not simply the structure itself that has created its historical and religious fame. Instead, both its origin as the first English cathedral, and the martyrdom of St. Thomas Becket which occurred within its walls, have given it its fame. For centuries pilgrims have traveled to Canterbury to offer their prayers at the shrine of Thomas Becket or to visit the spot on which Christianity was first officially introduced into Great Britain. These two events and the pilgrimages which followed also solicited the writing of Geoffrey Chaucer’s The Canterbury Tales, further extending its fame within English history. Overall, Canterbury Cathedral is one of the most important religious sites and shrines in all of the United Kingdom.

A cathedral in Canterbury was first erected when St. Augustine, the first Archbishop of Canterbury landed on the coast of Kent as a missionary sent to the Anglo Saxon people by Pope Gregory the Great. It is fabled that Gregory was struck by the beauty of Angle slave children whom he called “angels” and shortly thereafter dispatched Augustine and some monks to convert the blond haired blue eyed people to Christianity. Augustine was given a church at Canterbury, originally called St. Martin’s. This building remained the central place of worship throughout Roman occupation and has become the oldest church in England that is still in use today ("History and Heritage: Canterbury Cathedral"). It truly represents the longstanding Catholic tradition in the United Kingdom.

In the 10^th century, following the Norman invasion, the Cathedral was burned to the ground by a large fire. It was extensively rebuilt and enlarged by the Saxon people and a community of Benedictine monks was planted there. The new building personified the architecture of the Anglo-Norman Romanesque period during which cathedrals or large churches were rebuilt in many places including Bath and Winchester. These redesigned cathedrals were of enormous size, twice the length of the original Saxon Cathedrals. They also aimed to give the impression of strength and solidity conveyed through massive pillars, heavily rounded arches, thick walls and spreading ceilings. The cathedrals were built in the shape of a cross, the upper portion pointing towards the east (Willson 112). It was after the cathedral had been rebuilt that the greatest defining moment of its history would occur.

In the year 1170 a huge dispute occurred between the civil and ecclesiastical courts of England. Exceptional privileges enabling clergy to effectively dodge all law brought King Henry into conflict with the Church. Attempting to establish common law the King demanded that clergy who had been found guilty in ecclesiastical courts to come to civil courts for sentencing, along with demanding that appeals made directly to Rome cease, the King came into direct conflict with the Archbishop of Canterbury, Thomas Becket. The debate became more and more bitter until Becket thought it would be best to go abroad. He spent six years on the continent, threatening to excommunicate Henry and others (Hibbert 63). Henry eventually allowed Becket to return to Canterbury but as soon as he did, fresh quarrels broke out. Reportedly, Henry, while on a visit to his continental possessions was heard to exclaim, “What a parcel of fools and dastards have I nourished in my house that none of them will avenge me of this one upstart priest!” (Hibbert 64). Four knights, taking the King’s exclamation seriously sailed to England to murder the archbishop. King Henry’s popularity rapidly and drastically decreased after Becket was murdered in the Cathedral and he reigned only four additional years.

From this point forward the cyclical pilgrimage to the shrine of Thomas Becket began as pilgrims traveled from all over Britain to pay their respects. With Thomas Becket’s canonization in 1173, the numbers traveling to Canterbury every year only increased ("History and Heritage: Canterbury Cathedral”). Today, Canterbury continues to be the destination of many pilgrimages. Housing both the shrine to Thomas Becket and remaining the spot on which Christianity was first introduced to Great Britain, it is arguably the most important religious site in all of the United Kingdom.

Works Cited

Hibbert, Christopher. The Story of England. London: Phaidon Press Limited, 2006.

"History and Heritage: Canterbury Cathedral." Canterbury Cathedral . 4 Jun 2008 .

Willson, David Harris. A History of England. 2^nd ed. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1972.